REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Reinforced Concrete : A concrete with steel ( Steel = Carbon 0.25-1.5% and the remaining is Iron) embedded in it to act together as a unit body in resisting loads including self weight is called reinforced concrete. A concrete has high compressive strength but low in tensile strength. So, the low tensile strength of concrete can be replaced by high tensile strength with the addition of steel into it with proper calculation.

A reinforced building structure can be divided into parts to ease calculation and analysis. They are - Footing, Column, Beams, Slabs. Adding them with proper planning will make a building. There are more things to make a complete building. But these are some of the basic structures.

Beams :  The dead and live load of the slabs will transfer to the beams and then to the column.  There are three types of beam. They are- singly reinforced beam, doubly reinforced beam and flendged beams (either singly or doubly). 

ORESUND BRIDGE

It is a double decker rail and road bridge with tunnel that is connecting between Denmark's capital, Copehengen and swedish city Malmo through the sea of 16 km length.

In 1991, the leaders of the two nation sign an agreement to connect the two nation across the Oresund which will help in countries communication and  improving nation economy on both side. Denmark people wants homes to live at Sweden and Swedish needs more jobs that can be fulfilled at Denmark. Thus, they make the decision.

Surveying : The sea ( the Oresund) between these two nation passes big cargo and passenger ships everyday. A high rise bridge is required not to interupt the by pass ships. A suspension bridge would not be a good idea because high speed trains ( running through the lower decker of the bridge ) will give more vibration to the bridge which will lower the strength of the bridge. And an arch bridge would interupt the big ships from passing because probability of striking the bridge by the ship is very high. A cable bridge gives solution of all these problems.

Near the Copehengen sea shore, the Copehengen international airport is there. So, a high rise structures cannot be constructed on this side. So, engineers plan to build a tunnel on this side and meet the tunnel and the bridge after passing 4 km at the sea from the shore. An artificial island is to be construct to rise the tunnel from the bottom of the sea to the surface of the island and then bridge. The soil and rocks that have been dug from the tunnel foundation is used to make the artificial island of around 9 km long.

Construction : Oresundskonsortiet, the construction company of joint venture between swedish and dennish, sign contracts with all the necessary company for the construction. Construction begins in 1995 with the dateline of completing in 1999.
The tunnel blocks weighing more than 40 million kg which is made up of reinforced concrete is made at the shore and transfered it to its position ( with the help of GPS) by floating. The tunnel is covered with hard rocks to prevent it from moving and floating. Moving an 40 million kg of weight concrete blocks and keep it at the right place is not an easy task. Genius to engineers who find solutions and done this.

The construction uses lots of sophisticated and heavy machines. The bridge and tunnel is complete its all construction before the date line and open on july 2000.

PROPER USE OF OUR FOREST WEALTH, MANIPUR

 Manipur, an Indian state with a total area of 22,327 sq. km. has a plenty of forest wealth. About 9/10th of the total area ( 20,094 sq. km.) is covered by hills and mountain ranges. All the forest of Manipur lies in these hills and mountain ranges. About more than 18,000 sq. km of these area are totally forest area under the state government ownership, which has plenty of trees, fruits, bushes etc. But usable trees or plants are found in lesser area. Some part of these hills or mountain ranges are meadow land which can be converted into planned forest by plantation with proper planning. If the state government plans to convert these meadow land as tree forest or paddy field, the state GDP will not be same as now because as we all know about the revenue produce from the forest.
  Firewood, timbers, bamboo, fruits, raw materials are some of the current forest products of Manipur.
Firewood: About 90% of the families of Manipur uses firewood as their main or alternative source of cooking fuel. Moreover frequent economic blockade by the hill people of Manipur makes the prices of cooking gas higher or even unavailability frequently. These situation forces the people of Manipur to use firewood as their cooking fuel which becomes more economical.
To meet the requirement of firewood for the people of Manipur, plants has to be cut down in vast amount from the forest. But the most embarrassing thing is the amount of cutting is far more greater than the amount of planting.
Timber: Some of the uses of timber by the people of Manipur are-
- Furnitures
- handicrafts
- Construction of houses
- Sports material ( bats, hockey etc)
- Tools making
- Vehicles ( sangari, tractor, trucks etc.)
- Construction works of buildings
- Boat, bridges.
Constructions of houses and making of furnitures by timbers is carried out since the existance of the people of Manipur and it will go on for centuries in the future. The only thing that is change is their design and type of use.

A FURNITURE COMPANY : Understanding the land area of forest of Manipur, a furniture campany can make beautiful profit with low cost of raw material. Furnitures and  frames of houses are unavoidable requirements of private and public buildings or houses throughout the world. A furniture campany based in Manipur can supply throughout India, even overseas. Some of the features of that company are------
* The company can keep managing committee, research division, workers etc.
* It can even open branches and subsidiaries throughout the state.
* It can supply the furniture and frames requirement of the people of Manipur at cheaper price.
* It can expand its product and business by opening chain of showrooms of its own.
* It can have e-commerce system with home delivery service for single and bulk purchase of private or public.
* It can own vast area of land for its raw material. Plantations the meadow land of the hills.
* It can initiate ideas or activities of plantation of forest in joining hands with govt. or ngo,s. Such company will not like deforestation because their existance is depends on the plants of the forest.
* A group of research can be send outside Manipur for perception of new design and decoration of furniture.


A company of such kind can give jobs to lots of educated and non-educated manipuris.

INTERNATIONAL : International Union of Forest Research Organisation ( IUFRO ) which has 350 participants from around the globe deliberate every year on the issue relevant the conservation, sustainable, management and utilization of forest tree resources. The research shows the uses of forest products which also helps in improving countries GDP. Food and raw materials of drugs, cosmetics, paper industries, sports goods, resin gum, match boxes etc. are the things that depends on forest trees. About 1.7% of India's GDP comes from forest wealth. The forest products sector is one of Canada's, largest export industries, representing approximately 3% of GDP.

SINGDA DAM, MANIPUR

Singda Dam is a multipurpose project which is constructed at the singda river in Kangchup, located at about 19 km west of Imphal.Singda Dam in Manipur, India, has been constructed by National Projects Construction Corporation Limited . It is one of the highest earthen dam in India. The dam is 490m in length and 60m in height. The main objectives of the dam is to provide drinking water to greater Imphal and a proper irrigation facility to its nearby area. The construction of the dam started in 1975 and completed in 1995 under the revised project cost of Rs.6814.00 lakh. The Government of Manipur has set up Singda Irrigation Project in Singda. The irrigation project allows water conservation and its proper usage in Manipur valley. It provides irrigation water to an area of 4148 hactares ( 41.48 sq. km) of paddy field to its nearby villages. It is supplying pure water of about 7 MGD ( Million Gallon per Day, 1 gallon = 3.78 litres) which is augmenting the water supply of Imphal. It has a micro hydel power plant which is generating 225 kw of electricity. There is three irrigation canals of 7.02 km, 3.85 km and 7.04 km extending from the dam towards the nearby paddy fields. The size of the canals are 25 cusec, 20 cusec and 15 cusec of water flow ( 1 cusec = 28.31 litres per second).

The place is a beautiful landscape views which makes it one of the perfect tourist place and hill resort. This place is suitable for picnickers, hitch hikers, tourists and health enthusiasts. There is also an inspection bungalow at Singda.

Rocks at Rasulpur

Rasulpur is a place near Fatehpur Sikri in Agra district. One can find some types of rocks over there which can be used as building material. Only the sedimentary rocks are there which is part of Vindhyans supergroup rocks. There are many small hills apart from its hill ranges. These hills are made up of only hard rocks. The rocks are found in inclined plane having some angle of dip. The angle of dip is approximately 20°. The entire hill is align in the same direction of angle of dip.The strike direction can be found with an instrument called clinometer.The apperture of the rock is the length between the rock blocks formed due to different joints. In Rasulpur the apperture is about 0.01mm to 3cm. And their persistent are about 20m ( Persistent is the length of each joints). The rocks at the Rasulpur are mainly comprises of sandstone and inserted with some shales. Sandstones are clastic sedimentary rocks ( clastic sedimentary rocks are the type of rocks which is formed by composition of decay or disintegration of existing rocks in the presents of binding minerals like calcite, granite, iron oxide etc and water. ). Sandstone is a non porousity, hard rock, resistent to weathering and fracture and therefore are good building material. There is an ancient structure near Rasulpur which is made by Akbar, the great, and which is mostly composed of sandstone, probably some of the sandstones are taken from Rasulpur. The Buland Darwaza, Badshah-e-gate, Joda Bai's Palace, Panch Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas are some part of the Fatehpur Sikri palace which is about 4 km away from Rasulpur.They are all made up of sandstones. Their foundations, columns, beams, walls, floors are mainly made up of sandstones only.

STRATIGRAPHIC STATUS	Rocks of Vindhyan Supergroup an Kaimur Group
TOPOGRAPHY	Northeastern part of Vindhyan Hill Range.Small ridge and broad valleys in between. The ridge are representing broad synclinal limbs.The original topography changed duo to mining activity.
ROCK TYPE	Mainly clastic rocks, comprising sandstones and intercalated thin shales. The rocks show little to moderate effect of weathering resulting into brownish colouration. Four prominent sets of joints with numerous random joints giving overall tabular rock mass fabric. The ridges are truncated along faults. These rock mass may be classified as class 2 to 3 in Rock Mass Rating System.
ECONOMIC USES	As good quality road aggregates for "base course" . Excellent builing stones as flag stones, slab stones to dimension stones and rip rap. All major historical building are made of these "Red Sandstones"

PLUGIN

Plugins are certain programme which is needed by the computer to open some files.But be careful in dowloading plugin.
Example: If you want to play a video file in google chrome browser, u need to have a player as plugin in your browser google chrome. Flash player is integrated as plugin in your browser to watch video. If not, u need to download it as plugin. Whenever there is a need of downloading a plugin, thare will be an image type showing which has the link to download. You need to click at that image. The image will look like above image having a bold text sentence.
If you visit an unknown website and ask you to download a plugin, it may able to hack your computer by that website owner and steal your personal datas from your computer. Once your computer is hacked, it can be used from distance through internet by the hacker. But hackers can do this only when you connect your computer to intenet. Moreover virus may be integrated with plugin which will be harmful for your computer.